Chapter 3
Early Britain
From Stone Age hunters to the Norman Conquest: prehistoric sites, the Romans, the Anglo-Saxons, the Vikings and 1066.
By the end you should know
- Describe Britain before the Romans: Stone, Bronze and Iron Ages
- Know the Roman invasions (55 BC and AD 43), Boudicca and Hadrian's Wall
- Name the groups who invaded after the Romans and the missionaries who spread Christianity
- Explain why 1066 and the Norman Conquest matter
The Stone Age
Britain's first inhabitants were hunter-gatherers. For much of the Stone Age a strip of land joined Britain to mainland Europe, so people could walk across following the deer and horses they hunted. The Channel finally cut Britain off about 10,000 years ago.
Farming arrived roughly 6,000 years ago with settlers whose ancestors probably came from south-east Europe. These farmers built houses, tombs and monuments — the most famous is Stonehenge, which still stands in Wiltshire and was probably a meeting place for seasonal ceremonies. On Orkney, off the north coast of Scotland, Skara Brae is the best-preserved prehistoric village in northern Europe and shows how people lived late in the Stone Age.
When did Britain become permanently separated from the continent?
About 10,000 years ago, when the Channel cut it off.
For much of the Stone Age a land bridge joined Britain to Europe, and hunter-gatherers moved back and forth following herds of deer and horses.
When did the first farmers arrive in Britain?
Key factAbout 6,000 years ago.
Their ancestors probably came from south-east Europe. They built houses, tombs and monuments.
Where is Stonehenge and what was it probably used for?
Key factIn the English county of Wiltshire; it was probably a special meeting place for seasonal ceremonies.
What and where is Skara Brae?
Key factThe best-preserved prehistoric village in northern Europe, on Orkney off the north coast of Scotland.
It helps archaeologists understand how people lived near the end of the Stone Age.
The Bronze Age and the Iron Age
About 4,000 years ago people learned to make bronze. Bronze Age people lived in roundhouses, buried their dead in round barrows and were skilled metalworkers in bronze and gold. In the Iron Age that followed, people made tools and weapons of iron, lived in larger settlements and sometimes in defended hill forts — Maiden Castle in Dorset is a striking example.
Iron Age people spoke Celtic languages, relatives of which are still spoken in parts of Wales, Scotland and Ireland. They minted the first coins made in Britain, some carrying the names of their kings — the point at which British history (as opposed to prehistory) begins.
When did people in Britain learn to make bronze?
Key factAround 4,000 years ago — the start of the Bronze Age.
People lived in roundhouses, buried their dead in tombs called round barrows, and made tools, weapons and ornaments of bronze and gold.
What do we know about the Iron Age in Britain?
People made iron tools and weapons, lived in roundhouses and defended hill forts (e.g. Maiden Castle, Dorset), spoke Celtic languages and minted the first British coins.
The coins, some carrying the names of Iron Age kings, mark the beginning of British history.
The Romans
Julius Caesar's invasion in 55 BC failed, and Britain stayed outside the Roman Empire for almost a century. In AD 43 the Emperor Claudius invaded again and this time the Romans took almost all of Britain, despite resistance from some tribes. Boudicca, queen of the Iceni in eastern England, is the best-remembered rebel leader; her statue stands on Westminster Bridge.
The Romans never conquered what is now Scotland. The Emperor Hadrian built a wall across northern England to keep out the Picts. Its forts, including Housesteads and Vindolanda, survive and the wall is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Over about 400 years the Romans built roads and public buildings, created a structure of law and brought new plants and animals. Christian communities first appeared in the 3rd and 4th centuries AD.
When did Julius Caesar lead a Roman invasion of Britain?
Key fact55 BC — it was unsuccessful.
Britain then stayed outside the Roman Empire for nearly 100 years.
When did the Romans successfully invade Britain, and who led them?
Key factAD 43, led by the Emperor Claudius.
Despite resistance from some tribes, the Romans occupied almost all of Britain.
Who was Boudicca?
Key factQueen of the Iceni in what is now eastern England, who fought against the Romans.
A statue of her stands on Westminster Bridge, near the Houses of Parliament.
Why was Hadrian's Wall built?
Key factThe Emperor Hadrian built it in the north of England to keep out the Picts (ancestors of the Scottish people).
Forts such as Housesteads and Vindolanda can still be seen. It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The Romans never conquered what is now Scotland.
How long did the Romans stay in Britain, and what did they leave?
Key factAbout 400 years (they left in AD 410). They built roads and public buildings, created a structure of law and brought new plants and animals.
The first Christian communities appeared in Britain in the 3rd and 4th centuries AD.
Exam tip: 55 BC = Julius Caesar (failed). AD 43 = Emperor Claudius (succeeded). Hadrian built the wall; he did not lead the invasion.
The Anglo-Saxons
The Roman army left in AD 410 and never came back. Tribes from northern Europe — the Jutes, the Angles and the Saxons — then invaded. Their languages are the root of modern English. By about AD 600 Anglo-Saxon kingdoms were established, mostly in what is now England, while much of Wales and Scotland stayed free of their rule. An Anglo-Saxon king was buried in a ship full of treasure and armour at Sutton Hoo in Suffolk.
The Anglo-Saxons were not Christian at first. Missionaries from Ireland converted the north: St Patrick, who became the patron saint of Ireland, and St Columba, who founded a monastery on Iona. In the south, St Augustine led missionaries from Rome and became the first Archbishop of Canterbury.
Who invaded Britain after the Romans left, and when were their kingdoms established?
Key factThe Jutes, the Angles and the Saxons; by about AD 600 Anglo-Saxon kingdoms were established, mainly in what is now England.
Their languages are the basis of modern English. Much of Wales and Scotland stayed free of Anglo-Saxon rule.
What was found at Sutton Hoo?
The burial place of an Anglo-Saxon king in modern Suffolk — buried in a ship with treasure and armour under a mound of earth.
Which missionaries from Ireland spread Christianity in the north?
Key factSt Patrick (later patron saint of Ireland) and St Columba (who founded a monastery on the island of Iona, off Scotland).
Who was St Augustine?
Key factHe led missionaries from Rome who spread Christianity in the south, and became the first Archbishop of Canterbury.
The Vikings
Vikings from Denmark and Norway first raided Britain in AD 789, then began to settle in the east of England and in Scotland. The Anglo-Saxon kingdoms united under King Alfred the Great, who defeated them. Many Vikings stayed in the Danelaw in the east and north of England — towns such as Grimsby and Scunthorpe have Viking names — and some became Christians.
Anglo-Saxon kings went on ruling England apart from a short spell of Danish kings, the first being Cnut (Canute). In the north, the Viking threat pushed people to unite under one king, Kenneth MacAlpin, and the name Scotland came into use.
Where did the Vikings come from and when did they first raid Britain?
Denmark and Norway; they first came in AD 789.
Many settled in the east and north of England, in the Danelaw — place names such as Grimsby and Scunthorpe come from Viking languages.
Who was Alfred the Great?
Key factThe king under whom the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms in England united, and who defeated the Vikings.
Who were Cnut and Kenneth MacAlpin?
Cnut (Canute) was the first of the Danish kings of England; Kenneth MacAlpin united the people of the north under one king, and the name Scotland began to be used.
The Norman Conquest
In 1066 William, Duke of Normandy (northern France), defeated and killed the Saxon king Harold at the Battle of Hastings and became William the Conqueror. The battle is shown on the Bayeux Tapestry, which is in France. This was the last successful foreign invasion of England. It changed government and society, and Norman French shaped the English language.
The Normans also conquered Wales at first, but the Welsh gradually won land back. The Normans fought the Scots and took some border land, but did not invade Scotland. William ordered a survey of every town and village in England — who lived there, who owned the land and what animals they kept. This record, the Domesday Book, still exists.
What happened at the Battle of Hastings in 1066?
Key factWilliam, Duke of Normandy, defeated and killed Harold, the Saxon king of England. William became king — 'William the Conqueror'.
The Norman Conquest was the last successful foreign invasion of England. Norman French influenced the English language.
What is the Bayeux Tapestry?
A great piece of embroidery commemorating the Battle of Hastings; it can still be seen in France.
What is the Domesday Book?
Key factWilliam the Conqueror's survey of the towns and villages of England — who lived there, who owned the land and what animals they had.
It still exists and gives a picture of English society just after the Norman Conquest.
Exam tip: St Patrick → Ireland; St Columba → Iona; St Augustine → Rome and Canterbury. Don't mix up Alfred the Great (Anglo-Saxon, beat the Vikings) with Cnut (a Danish king).